Chapter 6 †Planning Capacity Free Essays

chapter 6: Planning capacity Capacity the maximum rate of output of a process or a system. Acquisition of new capacity requires extensive planning, and often involves significant expenditure of resources and time. Capacity decisions must be made in light of several long-term issues such as the firm’s economies and diseconomies of scale, capacity cushions, timing and sizing strategies, and trade-offs between customer service and capacity utilization. We will write a custom essay sample on Chapter 6 – Planning Capacity or any similar topic only for you Order Now Planning capacity across the organization Accounting provide cost information needed to evaluate capacity expansion Finance financial analysis of proposed capacity expansion investments and raises funds Marketing demand forecasts needed to identify capacity gaps. Operations selection of capacity strategies that can be implemented to effectively meet future demand. Human Resources hiring and training employees needed to support internal capacity plans. planning long-term capacity When choosing a capacity strategy: How much of a cushion is needed to handle variable or uncertain demand? Should we expand capacity ahead of demand, or wait until demand is more certain? easures of capacity and utilization Output Measures Are best utilized when applied to individual processes within the firm, or when the firm provides a relatively small number of standardized services and products. For example, a car manufacturing plant may measure capacity in terms of the number of cars produced per day. Inputs Measures Are used for low-volume, fle xible processes (custom products). For example a custom furniture maker might measure capacity in terms of inputs such as number of workstations or number of workers. The problem of input measures is that demand is expressed as an output rate. If the furniture maker wants to keep up with demand, he must convert the business’s annual demand for furniture into labor hours and number of employees required to fulfill those hours. Utilization Degree to which a resource (equipment, space, worker) is currently being used. Utilization= Average Output RateMaximum Capacityx 100% The numerator and the denominator should be measured in the same units. A process can be operated above the 100%, with overtime, extra shifts, overstaffing, subcontracting, etc, but this is not sustainable for long. Economies of scale Economies of scale The average unit cost of a service or good can be reduced by increasing its output rate. Why? * Spreading fixed costs same fixed costs divided by more units * Reducing construction costs doubling the size of the facility usually doesn’t double construction costs (building permits, architect’s fees, rental) * Cutting costs of purchased materials better bargaining position and quantity discounts * Finding process advantages speed up the learning effect, lowering inventory, improving process and job designs, and reducing the number of changeovers. diseconomies of scale Diseconomies of scale The average cost per unit increases as the facility’s size increases. The reason is that excessive size can bring complexity, loss of focus, and inefficiencies. capacity timing and sizing strategies sizing capacity cushions Capacity cushion=100%-Average Utilization rate (%) When the average utilization rate approaches 100% for long periods, it’s a signal to increase capacity or decrease order acceptance to avoid declining productivity. The optimal capacity cushion depends on the industry. Particularly, in front-office processes where customers expect fast service times, large cushions are vital (more variable demand). For capital-intensive firms, minimizing the capacity cushion is vital (unused capacity costs money). timing and sizing expansion Two strategies: * Expansionist strategy large, infrequent jumps in capacity. Is ahead of demand, and minimizes the chance of sales lost to insufficient capacity * Wait-and-see strategy smaller, more frequent jumps. It lags behind demand. To meet any shortfalls, it relies on short-term operations (overtime, temporary workers, subcontractors, postponement of preventive maintenance on equipment). It reduces the risk of overexpansion based on overly optimistic demand forecasts, obsolete technology, or inaccurate assumptions regarding the competition. This strategy fits the short-term outlook but can erode market share over the long run. Timing and sizing of expansion are related: if demand is increasing and the time between increments increases, the size of the increments must also increase. An intermediate strategy can be â€Å"follow the leader†, so nobody gains a competitive advantage for being ahead of demand, and everyone shares the agony of overcapacity in the other case. inking capacity and other decisions Capacity cushions in the long run buffer the organization against uncertainty, as do resource flexibility, inventory, and longer customer lead times. If a change is made in any one decision area, the capacity cushion may also need to be changed to compensate. For example: Lower volume of production (more capacity cushion) to raise prices or vice versa. a system atic approach to long-term capacity decisions 4 steps: 1. Estimate future capacity requirements 2. Identify gaps by comparing requirements with available capacity 3. Develop alternative plans for reducing the gaps . Evaluate each alternative, both qualitatively and quantitatively, and make a final choice step 1: estimate capacity requirements A process’s capacity requirement is what its capacity should be for some future time period to meet the demand of the firm’s customers (external or internal), given the firm’s desired capacity cushion. Larger requirements are practical for processes or workstations that could potentially be bottlenecks in the future, and management may even plan for longer cushions than normal. Capacity requirements can be expressed in: * Output measure * Input measure Either way, the foundation for the estimate is forecasts of demand, productivity, competition, and technological change. The further ahead you look, the more chance you have of making an inaccurate forecast. Using output measures Demand forecasts for future years are used as a basis for extrapolating capacity requirements into the future. If demand is expected to double in the next 5 years, then the capacity requirements also double. For example: Actual demand 50 customers per day; expected demand = 100 customers per day; desirable cushion = 20%. So capacity should be (100)/(1-0. )=125 customers per day. Using input measures Output measures may be insufficient in these situations: * Product variety and process divergence is high (customized products) * The product or service mix is changing * Productivity rates are expected to change * Significant learning effects are expected In these cases, an input measure should be used (number of employees, machines, trucks, etc) One product pro cessed When just one service or product is processed at an operation and the time period is a particular year, the capacity requirement (M) is: M=DpN[1-C100] D=demand forecast for the year (number of customers served or units produced) p=processing time (in hours per costumer served or unit produced) N=Total number of hours per year during which the process operates C=desired capacity cushion (expressed as a percent) M=number of input units required and should be calculated for each year in the time horizon Many products processed Setup time time required to change a process or an operation from making one service or product to making another. To calculate the total setup time D/Q*s Where D=demand forecast for the year Q= number of units processed between setups s= time per setup For example, if the demand is 1200 units, and the average lot size is 100, there are 1200/100=12 setups per year. Accounting for both processing and setup times for multiple products, we get: M=[Dp+DQs]product 1+[Dp+DQs]product 2+†¦+[Dp+DQs]product nN[1-C100] When â€Å"M† is not an integer and we are talking about number of machines, you can round up the fractional part, unless it is cost efficient to use short-term options, such as overtime or stockouts. But if we are talking about number of employees and we get 23. 6, we can use 23 employees and use a little overtime (in this case, 60% of a full-time person). step 2: identify gaps A capacity gap is any difference (positive or negative) between projected capacity requirements (M) and current capacity. step 3: develop alternatives Develop alternative plans to cope with projected gaps. One alternative is the base case do nothing and simply lose orders from any demand that exceeds current capacity or incur costs because capacity is too large. Other alternatives: various timing and sizing options (expansionist or wait-and-see strategies); expanding at a different location; and using short term options. For reducing capacity, the alternatives include closing plants, laying off employees, reducing days or hours of operations. step 4: evaluate the alternatives Evaluate qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative concerns The manager looks at how each alternative fits the overall capacity strategy and other aspects of the business not covered by the financial analysis (uncertainties about demand, competitive reaction, technological change, and cost estimates). Some of these factors can’t be quantified and must be assessed on the basis of judgment and experience. Quantitative concerns The manager estimates the change in cash flows for each alternative over the forecast time horizon compared to the base case. tools for capacity planning waiting-line models Are useful in high customer-contact processes. Waiting-line models use probability distributions to provide estimates of average customer wait time, average length of waiting lines, and utilization of the work center. Managers can use this information to choose the most cost-effective capacity, balancing customer service and the cost of adding capacity. This topic will be treated more deeply in the appendix (siguiente resumen) simulation Simulations can identify the process’s bottlenecks and appropriate capacity cushions, even for complex processes with random demand patterns and predictable flows in demand during a typical day. decision trees A decision tree can be particularly valuable for evaluating different capacity extension alternatives when demand is uncertain and sequential decisions are involved. How to cite Chapter 6 – Planning Capacity, Papers

Understanding Playwork Principles free essay sample

Briefly explain why it is important that the team work together when supporting children and young people’s play. (3 marks) The team needs to be aware of all the children situations, to all work in the same direction and provide a common and strong support or pace of action. Moreover, through observing kid’s needs, the team can share what they have spotted and thereafter set the play setting according to their needs, likes and dislikes. At the same time, the team is responsible to act collaboratively to keep the space safe and â€Å"organised† for the kids to enjoy fully of their time to play and take the most of it, for the same reason the team needs to be ready to respond, trigger and challenge to children’s cues. 2. Briefly explain the role of playworkers acting as advocates for play. (3 marks) As advocates for play, we have to enrich the child’s play environment by: †¢offering, encouraging and providing play opportunities taking into account their individual and collective needs, †¢ Providing equal opportunities for every kid no matter their backgrounds or health conditions. Listening to their interests and ideas, responding to their requests and challenging, †¢Supporting and enriching their development. †¢Observing any indicator that may suggest they are suffering from any abuse or being neglected and take action to protect and help them. †¢Developing a child centre approach and self-directive play 3. Explain three different methods a playwork team can use to support children and young people’s play. (3 marks) †¢OBSERVATION: observing children in their play process to see: -Their development (social, emotional, individual, intellectual,.. -Check the resources provided to support their needs. Assessing, afterwards, these observations to improve the weak points and enhance the strong ones. Check we have displayed enough resources and whether the set plan is useful and cover kid’s needs. -Observe our intervention towards responding to children’s cues, whether we are interfering or not and whether we are supporting kid’s needs in the right way or if they could be improved. -Check we are fulfilling health and safety policies and risk assessment appropriately, keep them up to date and modify them whenever it is necessary. †¢PLANNING and PROCURING RESOURCES: Setting a plan covering the five areas of development (SPICE) as the setting allows us and responding to children’s requests according to their ages, ensuring we are supporting and covering their needs as well as offering equal opportunities, taking into account: -Health and safety and risk assessments -The display of the resources respecting different areas of play (relax corner, building games, reading corner, art table, dolls, fancy dresses, tents,. ) -The kids have access to all resources, eliminating (reducing) all possible barriers that may prevent any of them to enjoy of their self- directed freely chosen play. . Explain the importance of balancing the needs and rights of individual children and young people with the needs and rights of others. (3 marks) Every kid and person must be respected and protected as an individual with his/her own specific needs and characteristics, who at the same time will be socialising with other individuals and their needs and personalitie s. Thus, when all being together we have to ensure that we are supporting them as individuals as the same time we offer them a comfortable environment to develop their socialising skills 5. Explain three ways playworkers can have an impact on the play space. 3 marks) 1. Providing a welcoming and nice environment for the kids, task setting, and clean, inviting and safe space. 2. Taking part or stepping back on their play. Getting involve when they require, that is, responding to their cues and observe when they are enjoying on their own and do not need us. 3. Playworkers’ skills: personal and professional, playwork features and qualities: active, observer, with initiative, approachable, compromise, funny, predispose, challenging, aware we are models for the kids, willingness to improve and extend knowledge and training 6. Explain three ways children and young people’s play can have an impact on members of the playwork team. (3 marks) Every way in which children and young people? s play will have an impact on us, being it positive or negative. Nevertheless, when children or young people are playing showing negative aspects towards other kids or member of the staff, such as the followings, will affect us in a way that we will have to intervene in their play or take further action: Violence: if the children are playing in such a way (being it verbal, psychological or physical) they are bullying other child/children involved in the play. The fact that they are using such behaviour show that they may be living in an environment with violence and abuse, or they may be experiencing some personal difficulties, and thus they are reproducing, copying and realising their anger in they play setting. If it would be happening, we will have to check the kids involved are safe and take action and find out why this person is behaving in such a way a provide him/her the way to sort it out and safeguard and support him/her. Depending on the matter, after it being discussed in the staff meeting and being reported, it would have to be passed to social services, child protection if it was required. -Sexual implications: That is true that in children and young people there is a biological process of discovery of their and other? s sexuality. Nonetheless, it can happen that some children or young people show inappropriate behaviours towards other kids or young people, not being in line with their ages. For example, using sexual language, doing explicit games between them or in front of some other or to other kids. If this would happen, we will have to intervene and find out why that person behaves in that way because it would be a sign of abuse in their home or surroundings. So, we will have to report it and take further action talking to social services, family. -Discrimination: If the children or young people are discriminating others, being through their play, behaviour or language because of, for example, the other kids’ origin, culture, language, social background, appearance or any disability, they are mistreating them and breaking their responsibility towards their rights. Thus, we will intervene to find out why this person is behaving in such disrespectful way, bearing in mind that it may be caused by issues back at their homes, some problems at the school, or going through a personal difficult moment- 7. Briefly explain the concept of ‘leadership’ within the context of a playwork team. (3 marks) Playwork team good leadership will offer quality to kids and parents. All members of the staff fulfil leading roles in different ways and are involved in the improvement of the process. Debbie Garvey and Andrea Lancaster, 2010) In the case of the supervisor the following skill, abilities, qualities and responsibilities would make will make it successful: -Organisational ability, approachable, good listener, acting responsible and following procedures, fair, committed, aware and applying health/s and safeguarding policies(as well as they are being fulfil by everybody), carrying a good practice of the playwork principles and children? rights, contr olling and problem solving. -Lead the team in a horizontal and communicative way as well as assigning tasks to the member of the team in a fair, equalitarian and respectful way. Listening to the team? s needs and suggestions, helping them to improve (appraisals). -Updating training, reflective practice and assessments. -Dealing with kids, team, parents, school, office and external bodies (social services, hospital†¦) to support them and keep the confidentiality. In the case of the playworkers, following their supervisor guidance and instructions and respecting him/er as such, they also develop leading roles in the sense that they are active participants with in the play setting and team; leading play provisions and ideas, carrying out duties on the checking of the play setting and its safety as well as the kid? s one, in addition to their initiative, observations and commitment.

Against Capital Punishment Essays - Crime, Misconduct, Penology

Against Capital Punishment ?At 8:00 p.m. it was nearing the end of John Evans' last day on death row. He had spent most of the day with his minister and family, praying and talking of what was to come. At 8:20 he was walked from his cell down to the long hall to the execution room and strapped in the electric chair. At 8:30 p.m. the first jolt of 1900 volts passed through Mr. Evans' body. It lasted 30 seconds. Sparks and flames erupted from the electrode tied to Mr. Evans' leg. His body slammed against the straps holding him in the chair and his fist clenched permanently. The electrode then burst from the strap holding it in place. A large puff of gray smoke and sparks pored out from under the hood that covered his face. An overpowering stench of burnt flesh and clothing began pervading the witness room. Two doctors then examined Mr. Evans and declared that he was not dead. The electrode was then refastened and Mr. Evans was given another 30-second jolt. The stench was nauseating. Again the doctors examined him and found his heart still beating. At this time the prison commissioner, who was talking on the line with Governor George Wallace of Alabama, was asked to cancel the execution on the grounds that Mr. Evans was being subject to cruel and unusual punishment. The request was denied. At 8:40 p.m. the third charge of electricity was passed through Mr. Evans body. At 8:44 p.m. he was pronounced dead. The execution took 14 minutes. Afterward officials were embarrassed by what one observer called the ?barbaric ritual.? The electric chair is supposed to be a very humane way of administering death, if there is one? (Zimring, & Hawkins, 1986, p.1). Every Western Industrial nation has stopped executing criminals, except the United States. Most Western nations have executed criminals in this century, and many were executed after World War II. Then executions suddenly decreased (Clay, 1990, p.9). This is partly because the people in many European countries might have been tired of killing from the war. In most cases the countries and states that stopped capital punishment followed with its formal abolition shortly after (Clay, 1990, p.10). One reason that the United States did not end capital punishment at this time is partly due to the fact that the war was never fought on our soil and US citizens had not all lived through the death and destruction of WWII personally. Some think that the United States should have followed Europe's lead and abolished capital punishment; some think it never should. The truth of the matter is, the United States should cease the use of capital punishment in both federal and state prisons. Capital punishment is immoral and unethical; it degrades society, and lowers the value of a human life. It does not deter murder, it is not economically efficient, and its effects are irreversible. There is not one good reason to keep executing wrongdoers in the United States or anywhere else. Capital punishment goes against the morals and standards that our country is based upon. A punishment that inflicts harm on a person can hardly be good or moral if it is purposeless. A punishment may be given to a wrongdoer for one or a combination of the following reasons: (1) to protect the community from the criminal returning to previous activity, (2) to rehabilitate the offender; and (3) to restore the moral order breached by the violation. Capital punishment is not required to accomplish any of these purposes. Other alternatives work better or at least as well (Robinson, 1999, October 7). Killing is not the answer (Bender& Leone, 1987 p. 63). Recently some states have been implementing life without parole as an alternative to death. This has proven just a successful as the death penalty for punishment. It prevents criminals from returning to society, and is less expensive than capital punishment (Vila & Morris, 1997, p.255). Another study shows that over 80% of those serving li fe sentences will never commit another crime, and well over 80% will never again commit a capital offense (Bedau, 1999, November 10). These statistics clearly show that other forms of punishment are successful in the deterrence

Frederick Douglass Fight from the Cultural Norm

Frederick Douglass Fight from the Cultural Norm American RomanticismNarrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave written by Frederick Douglass is perhaps the most informative text written on slavery. This text will be a stone in the groundwork of the movement for freedom. Slavery is looked at so generally by people of this time, while they have very little knowledge of the truths behind slavery. Many think of slavery as white people owning black people and forcing them to work using physical punishment to enforce their authority. Although this did occur, slavery was much more complicated. There were a lot more complications and issues involved during the time of slavery. Frederick Douglass' autobiography shined a new view of what slavery was about as well as all that took place, documenting adultery committed by male slave owners with female slaves and the consequences of that, the education of slaves and the relationships between slaves and slave owners.English: Portrait of Frederick Douglass as a young...Dougla ss uses his narrative in order to argue the cultural norm of the thoughts of white people, who think of slaves as merely working dogs. They are not considered as humans who have spiritual, mental and intellectual feelings, as they have every human rights taken away and thought of as property to serve the white men. Douglass debits such views of the harsh cultural and societal views on slavery.The issue of slavery has been touched upon often in the course of history. Not often do we get to learn about the inner struggles of a slave spiritually and intellectually. Through Frederick Douglass and his narrative, we can see into slavery from a physical state as well as from a mental state. Frederick Douglass' narrative of his life is an account of his experiences both during and following his life as a slave. It focuses on an area...

Musical investigation of the Faahae Tabu using concepts of Music Essay

Musical investigation of the Faahae Tabu using concepts of Music - Essay Example The relationship of music to language has been a topic of renewed debate in recent years. Many orientations and methodologies have been applied to musico-linguistic studies, from Chomsky's generative grammar to semiotics. Many writers have felt that such linguistic approaches have been at best limited in their applicability to music, although some recent studies of syntax have generated interest. This article will advance a rationale for the study of music theoretical and perception issues in the light of contemporary advances in the area of linguistic prosody. While some issues in linguistics have been widely discussed in the music psychology and perception literature, much research in prosody has not been addressed. In order to understand the position adopted herein, the reader may find it helpful to review some previous avenues of exploration in the comparison of music and language. While Chomsky has recently rethought his theories of deep structure in language, applications of th is theory to music have held a fascinating lure for musicians and theorists, from Bernstein's Schenkerian speculations to Lerdahl and Jackendoff's Generative Theory of Tonal Music (hereinafter GTTM). One of GTTM's main contributions is a systematized version of the hierarchical structure of meter, incorporating the linguistic studies of Liberman & Prince. (Liberman 249-336) Referencing transformational grammars, GTTM places a good deal of emphasis on the deep structure in composition, particularly in regard to metrical hierarchies and tonality. Lerdahl & Jackendoff are less interested in the 'surface' structure of a piece, which is generally defined to include melody, rhythmic patterns (as opposed to meter), dynamics, timbre, register, etc. In an effort to empirically demonstrate the theories contained in GTTM, many cognitive scholars gave designed experiments to measure performance variables. Often, these experimental performances are judged on their ability to reflect and/or communicate to listeners the deep harmonic structure of a composition. (Deliege 325-60) Contrary to expectation, research in music cognition has faltered when it has attempted to verify musical response in the context of the deep structure of transformational linguistics. Sloboda and Cooke, among others, have found that emotional response occurs in very short fragments of music and in a very short space of time. (Cooke 64-95) Such response is not relevant to the large-scale structural hierarchy of the composition. Factors such as repetition, changes of texture, register or dynamics are much more important in perceptual grouping than such tonal factors as modulations, cadence points, or tonal closure. (Clarke 352-8) Rosner and Meyer have attempted to experimentally document Meyer's theory of melodic processes. (Meyer 1-40) Meyer distinguishes between structural and ornamental melodic notes (much in the manner of Schenker). Wishing to prove that the underlying structure of the melody is more perceptually important to the listener than low-level structures such as contour, the authors instead find a greater perceptual effect for melodic process. They also discover a much more important role for melodic contour than they had predicted. The idea of top-down processing of musical hierarchies been widely verified experimentally, (Narmour 1-26) yet from the standpoint of music theory, the level of surface has been subject to unwarranted neglect. If deep structure is significant in both music theory and language, why can its effects not be verified in music perception research In part, the attention paid to deep structure by scholars of music perception has come about through some confusion of purpose. The aims of theorists are not necessarily those of perception researchers. Theoretical analysis tends to be highly reductive in nature, insofar as

Business report for Cadbury Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Business report for Cadbury - Essay Example ortfolio on the other hand it will surely provide opportunities for Cadbury for further expand its business and achieve organic growth opted in its strategies. The report not only evaluates company’s present situation but also makes useful findings regarding the company’s future and put forth recommendations for the company to remain a successful entity. This business report has been furnished in order to provide a critical assessment of the business environment in which Cadbury is operating and identify the recent changes that have occurred in the company’s business that has led to change in its ownership which of course has implications for its current business strategy and also future growth prospects. The report utilizes different business models to provide a summative report on the company’s ability to remain as a success in the packaged food industry. This analysis is also supported by financial ratio analysis that provides useful insight into the company’s financial performance and assists in evaluating why changes in the company’s business and strategy are imminent. Finally, recommendations are made for the next years of operations in light with the present corporate strategy of the company. Cadbury has remained a British iconic company for almost 183 years before it was sold to a US company Kraft. The company was established in 1824 by Quaker John Cadbury and later merged with a Swiss counterpart to form Cadbury Schweppes in 1969. Over the years the company had developed product lines into candy and non-alcoholic drinks market. However, as the company focused more on its confectionaries business it decided to sell off its seven famous drink brands that were once important part of the company’s business. Strategically the company has remained a successful business however in the recent years the company has gone through a tough period of hostile takeover bid by Kraft that has generated uncertainties regarding various business segments and

Roles of Chinese Navy and Maritime, and Ming Treasure Ship Voyages Term Paper

Roles of Chinese Navy and Maritime, and Ming Treasure Ship Voyages - Term Paper Example China has had an extensive and storied marine heritage. The Chinese geography and its coastlines could not lend itself as a protected area where saltwater sailing could be practiced. The eastern part of the Chinese coastlines fairly considered sailing except during the typhoon season and the Taiwan Strait stays as the most hazardous water stretch in the globe for purposes further than that of defense. The Chinese coast has most of its parts jagged and rocky to allow mooring, and natural port are little and distant between. Ancient China was chiefly a sedimentary, seamanship and agricultural society was restricted to navigation. In 1135, the Nomadic people of the north subjugated several regional capitals and launched a fresh capital at Hangzhou on the southern part of the Chinese coast at the Yangtze River. This became the initial chief seaport of China. Despite, its reputation as both port city and imperial capital, the shift, to Hangzhou never created new values; it formed no new l ocate of attitudes regarding the ocean. 2 In 13th century, during the reign of Mongol, several seaborne attacks were started against Vietnam, Japan and Java. The number of the solders involved in these attacks was significant; the attack on Japan involved to 250,000 soldiers and close to 900 ships; the subsequent attack in 1281 included 4400 ships. Nevertheless, the scheme of a strong navy never took in majestic China.3 Some most tremendous achievements of the dynasty of Ming, controlled by Admiral Zheng, were not sufficient to warrant sustained exploration. The navy of the Chinese, therefore, assisted